Age of Civilisation

[ Cuneiform—earliest known writing system ]
The development of cities was synonymous with the rise of civilization. 
six early civilizations as the foundation of human culture are: "Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus, Shang (or Yellow River valley), Mesoamerica and Andean South America
Early civilizations arose first in lower Mesopotamia (3500 BCE), 






[ Mesopotamia 

 is a name for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, corresponding to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, the northeastern section of Syria, as well as parts of southeastern Turkey and of southwestern Iran.] 

Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization by the Western world, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian empires, all native to the territory of modern-day Iraq. In the Iron Age, it was controlled by the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires. The indigenous Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians) dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history (c. 3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. It fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.

Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the Parthian Empire. Mesopotamia became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with parts of Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. In AD 226, it fell to the Sassanid Persians and remained under Persian rule until the 7th century Muslim conquest of Persia of the Sasanian Empire. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including Adiabene, Osroene, andHatra.

followed by 






Egyptian civ

civilization along the Nile (3000 BCE), the Harappan civilization in the Indus Valley (in present-day India and Pakistan; 2500 BCE) and Chinese civilization in the Yellow river and Yangtze river(2200 BCE)
The Neolithic Revolution, beginning about 8,000 BCE, saw the development of agriculture, which drastically changed the human lifestyle. Farming permitted far denser populations, which in time organized into states. Agriculture also created foodsurpluses that could support people not directly engaged in food production. The development of agriculture permitted the creation of the first cities. These were centres of trade, manufacturing and political power with nearly no agricultural production of their own. Cities established a symbiosis with their surrounding countrysides, absorbing agricultural products and providing, in return, manufactured goods and varying degrees of military control and protection.
( The Great Sphinx and the pyramids of Giza are among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt.)

Civilization in northeastern Africa 

that dates from the 4th millennium bc. Its many achievements, preserved in its art and monuments, hold a fascination that continues to grow as archaeological finds expose its secrets. This article focuses on Egypt from its prehistory through its unification under Menes (Narmer) in the 3rd millennium bc—sometimes used as a reference point for Egypt’s origin—and up to the Islamic conquest in the 7th century ad. For subsequent history through the contemporary period,

The Indus River, also called the Sindhū River  in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, is one of the longest rivers in Asia. It flows through Pakistan, theIndian state of Jammu and Kashmir and western Tibet. Originating in the Tibetan Plateau in the vicinity ofLake Mansarovar, the river runs a course through theLadakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, towards Gilgit-Baltistan and then flows in a southerly direction along the entire length of Punjab, Pakistan to merge into theArabian Sea near the port city of Karachi in Sindh. The total length of the river is 3,180 km (1,980 mi). It is Pakistan's longest river.

Two great rivers run through China Proper: the Yellow River in the north, and the Yangtze (or Yangzi ) River to the south. In fact, most of China Proper belongs to the drainage-basins of these two rivers. Both originate to the far west in the Tibetan Plateau.  The much smaller Xi River cuts through southern China.  The map below shows the current courses of these rivers, but over time there have been many changes.  Sometimes the Yellow River has emptied south of the Shandong peninsula, rather than north of it as it does today.  And for long periods, the Huai River emptied into the sea.









 While it is impossible to cover the whole ancient world, we will survey six great civilizations. Four of these six are of the Old World: Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley (in what is today northwest India and Pakistan), and ancient China. The last two, Mesoamerica and South America, are of the New World.

Mesoamerica is a region and cultural area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico toBelize, Guatemala, El Salvador,Honduras, Nicaragua, and northernCosta Rica, within which pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. It is one of six areas in the world where ancient civilization arose independently, and the second in the Americas after Norte Chico (Caral-Supe) in present-day northern coastal Peru.

Like many ancient empires, the Incas' exact origins are a mystery. This is due in large part to the story-telling practices used by the Inca in attempt to unite the people. The Amautas, the storytellers and tradition-keepers of the culture, began intentionally integrating or eliminating myths and legends to establish a common history for the empire.

However, historians have been able to agree on a common date concerning the beginning of Incan domination - 1438 - when the Incas set out from their hometown of Cuzco on a quest for land. Fifty years later, the Incas had acquired control of present-day Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, Chile and Ecuador. The civilization measured 2,500 miles long from the north to the south, and reached from the eastern coastal city of Atacma to Amazonian rain forests in the west.

Inca life stretched from sea level to 15,000 feet high in the Andean Cordillera. Rituals were even performed at heights of more than 22,000 feet in Llullailaco, Chile - the highest Incan sacrificial site known today.

How the Inca were able to communicate with thousands of miles between them and how they survived in the harsh climate that high altitudes can cause still baffles historians and anthropologists alike. But there are clues to how the spaced-out tribes remained in touch. Over 14,000 miles of Inca road have been discovered. One road stretches almost the entire length of the South American Pacific coast.

The success of the civilization is attributed to the mita - a labor program that ensured every tribe, family and individual produced enough for them selves but also contributed to the empire as a whole. Surplus goods were distributed, used as pay or stored away.

The Inca lived peacefully for about a hundred years until 1532 when the Spanish arrived. Many died from diseases, and those who survived the plagues died by the blade of the Spanish sword.

The civilization's peak population reached six million, and it was the largest nation on Earth at the time. It still holds the title of the largest native state in the western hemisphere.