Scientific Discoveries between 1492-1780

 Then followed the scientific discoveries when expeditions by land and sea had exploration for knowledge as their aim. the greatest leader for such an was Captain Cook (Captain James Cook, FRS, RN (7 November 1728^{[NB 1]} – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigationof New Zealand.),

 who in only three great voyages explored Australia, New Zealand, Circumnavigated Antartica and sailed through the Bering Strait . Explorationm by land was slower and it was not until the nineteenth century that English and American expeditions crossed North America and south America was fully penetrated.

Africa was the last major continent to be crossed . Serious exploration was begun in 1795 by Mungo Park (Mungo Park (11 September 1771 – 1806) was a Scottish explorer of the African continent. He was the first Westerner known to have travelled to the central portion of the Niger River.)

in West Africa , and thirty years later the Lauder Brothers (I profiled brothers Ronald and Leonard Lauder in 2002 as two of the world’s top collectors, patrons, philanthropists, and chairmen of major New York museums. They talk every day and buy art almost as often.)

found the mouth of the river Niger.

In 1849, David Livingstone , (David Livingstone (19 March 1813 – 1 May 1873) was a Scottish Congregationalist pioneer medical missionary with the London Missionary Society and an explorer in Africa. His meeting with H. M. Stanley on 10 November 1871 gave rise to the popular quotation "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" Livingstone was one of the most popular national heroes of the late 19th century in Victorian Britain, and he had a mythical status which operated on a number of interconnected levels: )

The major interest was then centred round the north and south polar regions. In 1909 the American , Peary , was the first to reach the north pole and in 1958 the American submarine .   

 who usually travelled alone and was perhaps the greatest land explorer ever known , began his journeys in southern and central Africa ; his work was continued after his death by his friend , Stanley.  

In 1911 the Norwegian, Amundsen (Roald Engelbregt Gravning Amundsen(Norwegian: [ˈɾuːɑl ˈɑmʉnsən]; 16 July 1872 – c.18 June 1928) was a Norwegian explorer ofpolar regions. He led the Antarctic expedition of 1910–12 which was the first to reach the South Pole, on 14 December 1911. In 1926, he was the first expedition leader for the air expedition to the North Pole.) , 

was the first to reach the south pole , followed a month later by the later by the Englishman, Scott, and in 1955-1958, Sir Vivian Fuchs led a british Commonwealth expedition which crossed the Antartic continent from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea.   

    

The great Explorations

The most important exploration of this period was made by Alexander The Greatin the yaers 330-323 B.C. when accompanied by land surveyors and scribes to record details of the countries through which he passed, he marched his armies through persia to Indisa , and, like a true explorer, returned by a different route.

In the 2nd and 1st century B.C.The Romans in the expansion of their empire penetrated up the Nile , as far north as the Baltic , and west ward across Europe.

Westwards exploration was extended by the Norsemen first by their discovery of Iceland  about A.D. 982, and finally by their reaching the mainland of North America about four years later. 

At about the same time the arabs were voyaging far afield in the Indian ocean , ranging fronm Spain to China , and as the south as Madagascar . Their greatest traveler was Ibn Batutawho visited every Moslem Country in a remarkablke series of journeys that lasted almost thirty years. Budhist Missionaries , passing to and fro from India to China across the deserts of Tagla Makan and Gobi , had come across what came to be known as the Jade Route, along which for centuries traders carried jade vfrom Himalyas to China in exchange far silk. 

In the same periodenvoys were sent by the Pope to great Khan of the Mughal Empire , and thus opened up the way forthe Poles , father and son - Venetian jewel merchants and the most famous land travellers of the age who journeyed twice across the Asia. 

By A.D. 1487 the Portuguese had coasted down Africa and in that year the Cape of Good Hope was rounded by Bartholomew Diaz. Thus opened the great age of Discoveries., and in thirty years all the unkown oceans were crossed  -  Columbus reaching America in 1492. Vascodama reaching India in 1498 and Magellan sailing across the Pacific and round the whole world in 1521.   

Following on the hills of Columbus , the Portuguese spread down through Brazil, and the Spaniards endeavoured to corss the continent that lay between them and the riches of the east . In A.D. 1513 Balbao crossed the Isthumus of Panama and a few years later Cortez conquered Mexico and reached the Gulf of California . The English and the French gained footings in North America and with the Dutch , began to seek a north west Passage in the Arcticas a route to China . By A.D. 1650 the existence of all the continents except America had been proved. 

  

The three growths, 1. growth of population, 2. growth of exploration and 3. growth of Scientific discoveries f

The three growths, 1. Growth of Population, 2. Growth of Exploration, and 3. Growth of Scientific discoveries in 15th to 19th centuries changed completely the face of the earth leading to two great wars.
1. Growth of Population ;

In the middle of 1800s world's population was estimated to be 1,000 million by mid 1920s , less than a century later, the population, the population had doubled. Considering all the relevant factors United Nations forecast that by A.D. 2000 the figure will have increased to over 6,000 millions and that it may reach 7,000 millions, as shown in the central  figure.    

The phenomenal expansion is shown on the chart in the center of these pages.

Movement of Population

The movement of population occur mainly for political, religious and economic reasons.The more important migrations of the past three hundred years;

1. Europeans to USA, 2. Europeans to Canada, 3. Europeans to South America, 4. Europeans to Australia and New Zealand, 5. Europeans to Central and East Africa, 6. Internal migration to Europe,

7. Dutch in South Africa; 8. Chinese in other parts of Asia, 9. Indians in Malay and Africa, 10. West Indians to Great Britain,