Henri-Louis Bergson ( 18 October 1859 – 4 January 1941) was a major
French philosopher, influential especially in the first half of the 20th century. Bergson convinced many thinkers that the processes of immediate experience and
intuition are more significant than abstract
rationalism and
science for understanding
reality.
Henri Bergson was born in Paris to an English mother ans a polish Jewish father, and grew up with French as his mother tongue.
Henri Bergson's family lived in
London for a few years after his birth, and he obtained an early familiarity with the
English language from his mother. Before he was nine, his parents settled in France, Henri becoming a naturalized French citizen.
Bergson lived the quiet life of a French professor, marked by the publication of his four principal works:
- in 1889, Time and Free Will (Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience)
- in 1896, Matter and Memory (Matière et mémoire)
- in 1907, Creative Evolution (L'Évolution créatrice)
- in 1932, The Two Sources of Morality and Religion (Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion)
In 1900 the
College of France selected Bergson to a Chair of Greek and Latin Philosophy, which he held until 1904. He then replaced
Gabriel Tarde in the Chair of Modern Philosophy, which he held until 1920. The public attended his open courses in large numbers.
The year after his arrival at Clermont-Ferrand Bergson displayed his ability in the humanities by the publication of an edition of extracts from
Lucretius, with a critical study of the text and of the
materialist cosmology of the poet (1884), a work whose repeated editions give sufficient evidence of its useful place in the promotion of classical study among the youth of France. While teaching and lecturing in this part of his country (the
Auvergne region), Bergson found time for private study and original work. He crafted his dissertation
Time and Free Will, which was submitted, along with a short
Latin thesis on
Aristotle (
Quid Aristoteles de loco senserit, "On the Concept of Place in Aristotle"), for his doctoral degree which was awarded by the
University of Paris in 1889. The work was published in the same year by
Félix Alcan. He also gave courses in Clermont-Ferrand on the
Pre-Socratics, in particular on
Heraclitus.
Bergson dedicated
Time and Free Will to
Jules Lachelier (1832–1918), then
public education minister, a disciple of
Félix Ravaisson (1813–1900) and the author of a philosophical work
On the Founding of Induction (
Du fondement de l'induction, 1871). Lachelier endeavoured "to substitute everywhere force for inertia, life for death, and liberty for fatalism". (Bergson owed much to both of these teachers of the
École Normale Supérieure. Compare his memorial address on Ravaisson, who died in 1900.)
Bergson settled again in Paris in 1888, and after teaching for some months at the
municipal college, known as the
College Rollin, he received an appointment at the
Lycée Henri-Quatre, where he remained for eight years. There, he read
Darwin and gave a course on his theories. Although Bergson had previously endorsed
Lamarckism and its theory of the
heritability of acquired characteristics, he came to prefer Darwin's hypothesis of gradual variations, which were more compatible with his continuist vision of life.
In 1896 he published his second major work, entitled
Matter and Memory. This rather difficult work investigates the function of the brain and undertakes an analysis of
perception and
memory, leading up to a careful consideration of the problems of the relation of body and mind. Bergson had spent years of research in preparation for each of his three large works. This is especially obvious in
Matter and Memory, where he showed a thorough acquaintance with the extensive pathological investigations which had been carried out during the period.
At the first
International Congress of Philosophy, held in Paris during the first five days of August, 1900, Bergson read a short, but important, paper, "Psychological Origins of the Belief in the Law of Causality" (
Sur les origines psychologiques de notre croyance à la loi de causalité). In 1900
Felix Alcan published a work which had previously appeared in the
Revue de Paris, entitled
Laughter (
Le rire), one of the most important of Bergson's minor productions. This essay on the meaning of comedy stemmed from a lecture which he had given in his early days in the Auvergne. The study of it is essential to an understanding of Bergson's views of life, and its passages dealing with the place of the artistic in life are valuable. The main thesis of the work is that
laughter is a corrective evolved to make social life possible for human beings. We laugh at people who fail to adapt to the demands of society, if it seems their failure is akin to an inflexible mechanism.
Comic authors have exploited this human tendency to laugh in various ways, and what is common to them is the idea that the comic consists in there being "something mechanical encrusted on the living".
On the death of
Gabriel Tarde, the sociologist and philosopher, in 1904, Bergson succeeded him in the Chair of Modern Philosophy. From 4 to 8 September of that year he visited
Geneva, attending the Second International Congress of Philosophy, when he lectured on
The Mind and Thought: A Philosophical Illusion (Le cerveau et la pensée: une illusion philosophique). An illness prevented his visiting Germany to attend the Third Congress held at
Heidelberg.
His third major work,
Creative Evolution, the most widely known and most discussed of his books, appeared in 1907. Pierre Imbart de la Tour remarked that
Creative Evolution was a milestone of new direction in thought. By 1918,
Alcan, the publisher, had issued twenty-one editions, making an average of two editions
per annum for ten years. Following the appearance of this book, Bergson's popularity increased enormously, not only in academic circles, but among the general reading public.
At that time, Bergson had already made an extensive study of
biology, knowing of the theory of
fecundation (as shown by the first chapter of the
Creative Evolution), which had only recently emerged, ca. 1885 — no small feat for a philosopher specializing in the
history of philosophy, in particular of Greek and Latin philosophy. He also most certainly had read, apart from Darwin,
Haeckel, from whom he retained his idea of a unity of life and of the ecological solidarity between all living beings,as well as
Hugo de Vries, from whom he quoted his
mutation theory of evolution (which he opposed, preferring Darwin's gradualism). He also quoted
Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, the successor of
Claude Bernard at the Chair of Experimental Medicine in the Collège de France, etc.
Relationship with James and Pragmatism
Bergson travelled to London in 1908 and met there with
William James, the
Harvard philosopher who was Bergson's senior by seventeen years, and who was instrumental in calling the attention of the Anglo-American public to the work of the French professor. The two became great friends. James's impression of Bergson is given in his Letters under date of 4 October 1908:
"So modest and unpretending a man but such a genius intellectually! I have the strongest suspicions that the tendency which he has brought to a focus, will end by prevailing, and that the present epoch will be a sort of turning point in the history of philosophy."
As early as 1880, James had contributed an article in French to the periodical
La Critique philosophique, of Renouvier and Pillon, entitled
Le Sentiment de l'Effort. Four years later, a couple of articles by him appeared in the journal
Mind: "What is an Emotion?" and "On some Omissions of Introspective Psychology". Bergson quoted the first two of these articles in his 1889 work,
Time and Free Will. In the following years 1890–91 appeared the two volumes of James's monumental work,
The Principles of Psychology, in which he refers to a pathological phenomenon observed by Bergson. Some writers, taking merely these dates into consideration and overlooking the fact that James's investigations had been proceeding since 1870 (registered from time to time by various articles which culminated in "The Principles"), have mistakenly dated Bergson's ideas as earlier than James's.
It has been suggested that Bergson owes the root ideas of his first book to the 1884 article by James, "On Some Omissions of Introspective Psychology," which he neither refers to nor quotes. This article deals with the conception of thought as a
stream of consciousness, which
intellect distorts by framing into concepts. Bergson replied to this insinuation by denying that he had any knowledge of the article by James when he wrote
Les données immédiates de la conscience. The two thinkers appear to have developed independently until almost the close of the century. They are further apart in their intellectual position than is frequently supposed. Both have succeeded in appealing to audiences far beyond the purely academic sphere, but only in their mutual rejection of "intellectualism" as final is there real unanimity. Although James was slightly ahead in the development and enunciation of his ideas, he confessed that he was baffled by many of Bergson's notions. James certainly neglected many of the deeper metaphysical aspects of Bergson's thought, which did not harmonize with his own, and are even in direct contradiction. In addition to this, Bergson can hardly be considered a pragmatist. For him, "utility," far from being a test of truth, was in fact the reverse: a synonym for error.
Nevertheless, William James hailed Bergson as an ally. In 1903, he wrote:
I have been re-reading Bergson's books, and nothing that I have read since years has so excited and stimulated my thoughts. I am sure that that philosophy has a great future, it breaks through old cadres and brings things into a solution from which new crystals can be got.
The most noteworthy tributes James paid to Bergson come in the
Hibbert Lectures (A Pluralistic Universe), which James gave at
Manchester College, Oxford, shortly after meeting Bergson in London. He remarks on the encouragement he has received from Bergson's thought, and refers to the confidence he has in being "able to lean on Bergson's authority." (Also see James's reservations about Bergson below.)
The influence of Bergson had led James "to renounce the intellectualist method and the current notion that
logic is an adequate measure of what can or cannot be". It had induced him, he continued, "to give up logic, squarely and irrevocably" as a method, for he found that "reality, life, experience, concreteness, immediacy, use what word you will, exceeds our logic, overflows, and surrounds it".
These remarks, which appeared in James's book
A Pluralistic Universe in 1909, impelled many English and American readers to an investigation of Bergson's philosophy for themselves, but no English translations of Bergson's major work had yet appeared. James, however, encouraged and assisted Dr.
Arthur Mitchell in his preparation of the English translation of
Creative Evolution. In August 1910, James died. It was his intention, had he lived to see the completion of the translation, to introduce it to the English reading public by a prefatory note of appreciation. In the following year the translation was completed and still greater interest in Bergson and his work was the result. By coincidence, in that same year (1911), Bergson penned a preface of sixteen pages entitled
Truth and Reality for the French translation of James's book,
Pragmatism. In it he expressed sympathetic appreciation of James's work, coupled with certain important reservations.
From April 5 to 11, Bergson attended the Fourth International Congress of Philosophy held at
Bologna, in Italy, where he gave an address on "Philosophical Intuition". In response to invitations he visited England in May of that year, and on several subsequent occasions. These visits were well received. His speeches offered new perspectives and elucidated many passages in his three major works:
Time and Free Will,
Matter and Memory, and
Creative Evolution. Although necessarily brief statements, they developed and enriched the ideas in his books and clarified for English audiences the fundamental principles of his philosophy.
Albert Camus ( 7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960) was a French philosopher, author, and journalist. His views contributed to the rise of the philosophy known as absurdism. He wrote in his essay The Rebel that his whole life was devoted to opposing the philosophy of nihilism while still delving deeply into individual freedom. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957.
